Intergovernmental relations in education policy are dominated by regulations, programs, and technical assistance. A metaphor called "ecology of games" captures how each level of government maximizes its influence, affecting state and local policy-making. Classroom practice is limitedly influenced by intergovernmental policy, as local demands, taxes, and needs also play a role. State policies are easier to influence administrators than to change teaching. Each level of government tries to maximize its sphere of influence.

The National Science Foundation granted MIT's Jerold Zacharias in 1956 to develop a real science physics curriculum for high school students. By the 1970s, curricula were developed in various sciences, but each independently with differences in development, planning, and concepts. Despite the $117 million cost, adoption rates peaked and momentum for further curricula development waned. Lessons can be drawn from this experience to inform national standards today.

The research base for understanding and prescribing policy for school boards is limited due to the large number of boards and members. Common school boards, especially those of small districts, are less researched. To address this, overall trends affecting most boards should be analyzed to determine the need for and direction of school board reform. Waiting for representative data on all boards will delay improvements to policy making. Major changes in school board roles, functions, and operations are necessary due to the interaction of these trends.

The US public education system has served the nation well, but it must now face unprecedented challenges and worldwide competition. The strengths and weaknesses of the system need to be assessed to build on its strengths and address its weaknesses. However, questions remain about the resources and political will necessary to get the job done.

The article discusses the importance of parent involvement in education and its effects on student achievement. It suggests that schools need to create a welcoming environment for parents and engage them in meaningful ways, such as through volunteering and decision-making committees. Additionally, the article emphasizes the need for schools to provide information and resources to parents, especially those who are disadvantaged, to ensure that they are equipped to support their children's learning at home.

The politics of policy making for children is complex due to the multiple interest groups involved. Fragmented policies exacerbate the problem of declining life situations for children. A comprehensive children's policy is needed, but traditional interest-group approaches to policy development must shift to integrate services for children. California's politics of children's policy is briefly explored. The current political paradigm must fundamentally change to open policy doors for broad-based integrated services for children.

American education reform stresses the importance of principals as instructional leaders, but most are not effective in this role. Research suggests that innovative administrator training is needed to transform the role of site administrators. Content and process criteria have been identified, and several state-sponsored training programs have been established to meet them. One such program is the California School Leadership Academy, which provides a three-year program for aspiring and practicing site administrators with an emphasis on instructional leadership.

This article contends that school-linked services and education reform efforts are integrally related. Successful implementation of school-linked services requires new roles and responsibilities for all levels of school personnel. Drawing on general experience and citing specific examples from the New Beginnings experi­ence in San Diego, the article outlines these new roles and responsibilities for school superintendents, board members, principals, and teachers. It describes the plan­ning process involved, a process that includes an initial feasibility study and commu­nity needs assessment; a...

School finance has become a prominent issue again due to court decisions and litigation in several states. This article explores school finance changes in the 70s and 80s and outlines key issues for the 90s, including the relationship between finance and education goals, site-based management, teacher pay, accountability, school choice, and nontraditional issues such as preschool and non-educational services for children.

Debate over school choice has been reignited due to the school reform movement and frustration with low academic achievement. The conversation becomes heated when private schools are included in the system of choice, as proponents believe it will foster competition and improve schools, while opponents argue it will harm public schools and society. This article aims to shed light on the complex issue of school choice.

Traditionally, educational evaluation has focused on measuring student achievement and program performance. However, education reforms are now linking schooling to economic development, leading to a shift towards managerial expectations and politicization of the field. This article explains the human capital imperative and its relation to education, summarizes the history of educational evaluation, and outlines an alternative model for educational appraisal in the context of government-led education system reforms aimed at enhancing national economic growth.

The U.S. ranks low in international education comparisons, but the discussion is misleading because it does not look at postsecondary education. The value added by the postsecondary education system, including community colleges, trade schools, and universities, is ignored. The U.S.'s strongest suit is probably its entire postsecondary education system in the international arena.

Educational indicator systems are in demand in the US due to their strong linkages to policy issues. This article covers five major issues related to educational indicators, including what they are, major initiatives in the US, and indicator strategies in California. It also discusses key issues related to indicator development and use and outlines alternative strategies for making sense of educational indicators, which are currently missing in the US.

The new global economy is reshaping education worldwide, necessitating policies that expand access and enhance quality. Despite different educational systems, similar issues need to be addressed, resulting in an international convergence of education policies. The article discusses the emerging economy, educational challenges, policy alternatives, and compares recent reforms in the US and UK.

The growing demand for compensatory education and for child care has generated a rash of federal legislation; many states have enacted new early childhood programs, most of them located within schooling systems, and many others are considering their options. This article examines the basic policy issues governments confront in early childhood education, including the content of programs, their financing, and the inevitable trade-off between cost and quality. The final section of the article outlines the available policy options.

An inventory of 30 California districts reveals their policy stance on teacher professional development, which primarily consists of skill acquisition through district-led programs. Other sources, such as universities or professional communities, are less visible. The districts are the dominant providers of development opportunities, with expenditures reflecting a ready marketplace of predetermined programs. Alternative routes to professional growth are less evident.

The notion that larger school districts are superior has changed, with some researchers advocating for smaller ones. Recent reform reports have focused on the school site as the decision-making seat. Three main issues guide district size research: fiscal efficiency, school effectiveness, and community identity. Although research has been conducted, there is still no definitive answer. This article explores the research and debate on the "right" size for school districts and identifies unanswered questions, hoping to kindle interest in further research.

1983 marked the beginning of state education reform with the release of the Nation at Risk report. Although many states had already passed education legislation, the last states joined in 1987. The reform's diffusion and breadth is impressive, and its consistency in concept makes it a hallmark in state policymaking. With initial statutes based on the 1983 concepts completed, the question remains whether a second wave will occur or if momentum has been spent.

This article examines whether state-level initiatives for school reform can improve local schools. California's comprehensive reform legislation, SB 813, aimed to alter curriculum and instruction in almost every school in the state. The effects of such a broad range of reforms on local districts and schools are not well understood. While earlier studies indicate that the reforms were being implemented, questions remain about how they operate in local schools and whether they result in substantive change. The answers to these questions are crucial for policymakers and practitioners alike.

Michael Kirst, professor at Stanford University and former president of the California State Board of Education, is interviewed by People in Education Evaluation and Research (PEER). Kirst co-directs the Policy Analysis for California Education (PACE) project, an independent education policy center that provides unbiased research to legislators and policy makers. With Kirst's extensive experience in education and government, he is uniquely qualified to understand multiple sides of educational issues.

The passage of Proposition 13 in 1978 sent shockwaves through California's community colleges, affecting all aspects of their operations. The crisis exposed the colleges' lack of preparedness for such magnitude, leaving them grappling to cope with chaos. This article looks at California's experience and highlights critical elements necessary for recognizing problems and mitigating chaos. Educational leadership will need to be adept at ambiguity and conflict resolution as the future promises to be more complex and unpredictable. Finance, mission, and governance are the three key areas of focus.

PACE, a university-based research center, provides "nonpartisan, objective, independent" information on K-12 schooling in CA. Its analyses have been invaluable to lawmakers and educators during the state's active education-reform period. PACE has played a growing role in debates on school issues, exemplified by a heated debate in the CA legislature over the Commission on Teacher Credentialing. PACE offers a model for providing data for education policies when many states are seeking broader information bases. It has helped provide a better understanding of what is happening in education.

Educational reform in the US has shifted from equal opportunities to greater school productivity. There are some positive results with increased enrolment in academic courses, rigorous textbooks, and raised admission standards for higher education. However, fundamental components of the reform are at odds with the dynamics of organizational revitalization. Without policies that unleash productive local initiatives, the reform is likely to lose momentum, eroding citizens' confidence in schools and generating public resources for them.

The study examines curricular changes in California's high schools from 1982 to 1985, a period of educational reforms aimed at increasing academic rigor. The state mandated more extensive graduation requirements while universities adjusted their entrance requirements. A sample of 20 comprehensive high schools shows increased academic offerings in math, science, and advanced placement, and decreased offerings in industrial arts, home economics, and business education, reflect statewide trends.

This article reviews the literature on federal involvement in U.S. elementary and secondary education, from the 1960s to the present day. The federal government's share of spending has decreased since the 1980s, and regulatory pressures have subsided. However, this review identifies trends and themes that have emerged in the literature since the 1980s, encompassing both empirical research and normative commentaries. A literature review primarily focuses on work completed after the early 1980s research syntheses and excludes judicial policies.