This article uses survival analysis to examine factors associated with placing infants and toddlers in nonparental care, and at what ages. Using data from a national probability sample of 2,614 households, the study finds that the median age at first placement is 33 months and varies by geographic region, mother's employment status during pregnancy, education level, and family structure. Differences by race and ethnicity are small. The article discusses implications for studies of childcare selection and evaluations of early childhood programs.

An investigation of the family factors and practices that influence parents' choice of center-based programs for young children. Maternal education, child's age, and availability of social support were found to be significant factors in center selection. African-American families were more likely to choose center-based care than white or Latino families, and parental practices related to early literacy development and close supervision also affected center selection. The study highlights the importance of considering selection processes when assessing the effects of early childhood programs.

I apologize, let me try to summarize the article more concisely. The article discusses the California Learning Assessment System (CLAS), which aimed to align the state's testing system with the content of what was taught in schools and better measure student performance through performance-based standards and assessments. However, CLAS faced opposition from various groups and was ultimately discontinued. The case offers lessons for reformers about the politics of testing policy in the US and the difficulties of large-scale transformation of state assessment systems.

The education productivity problem is rising resources but only modestly rising student achievement. Current education reform aims to produce higher student achievement with stable resources. Low student performance may be due to declining social and economic conditions, lack of hard work by students, and lack of parental support. However, research focuses on what schools can do to improve productivity by controlling and improving student achievement. Both education programs and finance structures need to be restructured to accomplish productivity challenges.

Intergovernmental relations in education policy are dominated by regulations, programs, and technical assistance. A metaphor called "ecology of games" captures how each level of government maximizes its influence, affecting state and local policy-making. Classroom practice is limitedly influenced by intergovernmental policy, as local demands, taxes, and needs also play a role. State policies are easier to influence administrators than to change teaching. Each level of government tries to maximize its sphere of influence.

The National Science Foundation granted MIT's Jerold Zacharias in 1956 to develop a real science physics curriculum for high school students. By the 1970s, curricula were developed in various sciences, but each independently with differences in development, planning, and concepts. Despite the $117 million cost, adoption rates peaked and momentum for further curricula development waned. Lessons can be drawn from this experience to inform national standards today.

The research base for understanding and prescribing policy for school boards is limited due to the large number of boards and members. Common school boards, especially those of small districts, are less researched. To address this, overall trends affecting most boards should be analyzed to determine the need for and direction of school board reform. Waiting for representative data on all boards will delay improvements to policy making. Major changes in school board roles, functions, and operations are necessary due to the interaction of these trends.

The US public education system has served the nation well, but it must now face unprecedented challenges and worldwide competition. The strengths and weaknesses of the system need to be assessed to build on its strengths and address its weaknesses. However, questions remain about the resources and political will necessary to get the job done.

The article discusses the importance of parent involvement in education and its effects on student achievement. It suggests that schools need to create a welcoming environment for parents and engage them in meaningful ways, such as through volunteering and decision-making committees. Additionally, the article emphasizes the need for schools to provide information and resources to parents, especially those who are disadvantaged, to ensure that they are equipped to support their children's learning at home.

The concept of school-linked services is to make social services available to children and families through the school acting as an organizational touchpoint. This idea has become increasingly prominent due to the declining life situations of many American children, particularly those in urban areas, who face poverty-related issues like inadequate healthcare, juvenile justice involvement, and abusive homes.

The politics of policy making for children is complex due to the multiple interest groups involved. Fragmented policies exacerbate the problem of declining life situations for children. A comprehensive children's policy is needed, but traditional interest-group approaches to policy development must shift to integrate services for children. California's politics of children's policy is briefly explored. The current political paradigm must fundamentally change to open policy doors for broad-based integrated services for children.

Many new teachers leave the profession due to low salaries, which have only slightly increased despite requiring similar preparation to other professions. A possible solution is extended contracts made possible by year-round school schedules, which could raise salaries within restricted budgets. This study examines the effects of extended-year contracts on teacher satisfaction and burnout.

The US faces critical challenges in education, such as incorporating disadvantaged students and preparing them for a competitive, tech-driven work environment. To meet these challenges, reform efforts are underway. Despite claims that educational research has produced few applicable findings, it has contributed by changing how policymakers and practitioners think about problems. The National Academy of Education argues that implementing broad-based reforms without adequate research will fail. Research must play an important role in meeting these challenges.

American education reform stresses the importance of principals as instructional leaders, but most are not effective in this role. Research suggests that innovative administrator training is needed to transform the role of site administrators. Content and process criteria have been identified, and several state-sponsored training programs have been established to meet them. One such program is the California School Leadership Academy, which provides a three-year program for aspiring and practicing site administrators with an emphasis on instructional leadership.

This article contends that school-linked services and education reform efforts are integrally related. Successful implementation of school-linked services requires new roles and responsibilities for all levels of school personnel. Drawing on general experience and citing specific examples from the New Beginnings experi­ence in San Diego, the article outlines these new roles and responsibilities for school superintendents, board members, principals, and teachers. It describes the plan­ning process involved, a process that includes an initial feasibility study and commu­nity needs assessment; a...

US high school students, especially those who do not attend college, have been found to lack skills and knowledge necessary for the job market. The California Partnership Academies program has been developed to address this issue and has been adopted by over 50 high schools. The program has received support and positive evaluations. Factors contributing to the issue include societal changes, the education system, and changes in the labor market. If these issues are not addressed, the US risks falling behind international competitors and a lower standard of living.

School finance has become a prominent issue again due to court decisions and litigation in several states. This article explores school finance changes in the 70s and 80s and outlines key issues for the 90s, including the relationship between finance and education goals, site-based management, teacher pay, accountability, school choice, and nontraditional issues such as preschool and non-educational services for children.

Debate over school choice has been reignited due to the school reform movement and frustration with low academic achievement. The conversation becomes heated when private schools are included in the system of choice, as proponents believe it will foster competition and improve schools, while opponents argue it will harm public schools and society. This article aims to shed light on the complex issue of school choice.

Traditionally, educational evaluation has focused on measuring student achievement and program performance. However, education reforms are now linking schooling to economic development, leading to a shift towards managerial expectations and politicization of the field. This article explains the human capital imperative and its relation to education, summarizes the history of educational evaluation, and outlines an alternative model for educational appraisal in the context of government-led education system reforms aimed at enhancing national economic growth.

The U.S. ranks low in international education comparisons, but the discussion is misleading because it does not look at postsecondary education. The value added by the postsecondary education system, including community colleges, trade schools, and universities, is ignored. The U.S.'s strongest suit is probably its entire postsecondary education system in the international arena.

In 1983, the California legislature enacted a series of incentive programs intended, in part, to encourage local school districts to devote more resources toward instructional expenditures. Analysis of district response to those incentives shows they were more effective in directing spending toward direct instruction than were general or categorical grants. However, it appears that as the incentive funds were rolled into general aid revenues, district spending patterns began to revert to the same distribution of expenditures observed prior to enactment of the incentives.

This article highlights the changing nature of childhood, with increasing physical and mental health problems, substance abuse, child abuse, inadequate child care, and family disorganization. Furthermore, schools struggle to meet the needs of non-middle-class, nonwhite, non-English-speaking children, as more students from these backgrounds enter public schools. To improve educational prospects, school leaders must recognize how children's daily lives affect their education and adapt to these changes.

This article delves into the issue of class size in education, examining how it affects student achievement and suggesting policy alternatives. With some states proposing and implementing class size reductions, the analysis discusses the research on the subject and its policy implications. The piece is divided into four sections, starting with an introduction that provides context for the class size debate.

Educational indicator systems are in demand in the US due to their strong linkages to policy issues. This article covers five major issues related to educational indicators, including what they are, major initiatives in the US, and indicator strategies in California. It also discusses key issues related to indicator development and use and outlines alternative strategies for making sense of educational indicators, which are currently missing in the US.

This article discusses the criticism of alternative routes to teaching, which are seen as inadequate and leading to declining instructional quality, but are attempting to address the shortage of qualified teachers in urban and high demand subject areas. Supporters argue that they are effective in recruiting competent teachers for hard-to-staff schools and replacing the emergency credential system with rigorous training. The article highlights the impact of teacher shortages on inner city and minority students who are currently being educated by marginally qualified teachers.