California's higher and lower education systems are inadequately coordinated, resulting in negative effects on teacher quality and disruptive changes in admission requirements. The low status of teacher training in universities and the irrelevance of education research to teaching needs exacerbate the problem. Four complex policy areas require consideration: teacher preparation, admission policies, education research, and statewide education coordination. To benefit students at all levels, effective planning and coordination are critically important, extending beyond voluntary efforts.

California adopts strategies to fuse comprehensive education reforms with special-needs curricular services for economically disadvantaged students. Both compliance and assistance mechanisms, as well as top-down and bottom-up tactics, are key to improving education for regular and categorical program students. Evidence suggests excellence and equity are compatible, but whether these strategies improve student performance is unclear.

California aims to improve K-12 education by enhancing teacher recruitment and preparation, regulation, and professionalization. Proposed changes include establishing a California Teacher Standards Board, eliminating the emergency credential, and improving the Mentor Teacher Program. Balancing costs and practical progress toward healthier working conditions is a challenge, but a fully professionalized teaching force is key to future student success and California's position in the world.

This paper argues that the components of educa­tional provisions which satisfy private demands, mythology aside, almost invariably win out over the public goods components. If true, this leads, on the one hand, to a diminished supply of social benefits, and, on the other, to a stifling of social mobility. Insofar as these arguments are correct, they also may apply in most coun­tries of the world, whether capitalist or socialist.

Peninsula Academies are three-year high school programs designed for at-risk students, combining academic and technical training. Since 1981, they've been operating in California, and in 1985, ten new programs were created under state sponsorship. This report evaluates the quality of implementation and evidence of measurable impact on students after the first year. The report is based on site visits, questionnaire responses, and student data gathered from each high school. The Academy model is complex, but some sites didn't fully realize all components.

Educational reform in the US has shifted from equal opportunities to greater school productivity. There are some positive results with increased enrolment in academic courses, rigorous textbooks, and raised admission standards for higher education. However, fundamental components of the reform are at odds with the dynamics of organizational revitalization. Without policies that unleash productive local initiatives, the reform is likely to lose momentum, eroding citizens' confidence in schools and generating public resources for them.

The study examines curricular changes in California's high schools from 1982 to 1985, a period of educational reforms aimed at increasing academic rigor. The state mandated more extensive graduation requirements while universities adjusted their entrance requirements. A sample of 20 comprehensive high schools shows increased academic offerings in math, science, and advanced placement, and decreased offerings in industrial arts, home economics, and business education, reflect statewide trends.

Continuing growth and sustained progress on educational reform characterize California's public schools, but the Gann spending limit, which potentially restricts state dollars for education, and projected shortages of highly qualified teachers dampen prospects for continued educational improvements. Indications of important educational progress in California, which PACE documented in Conditions of Education in California, 1985, continue on many fronts. This is particularly true when compared to the recent decade of serious decline in California's public school system.

Teacher shortages in specific subjects and regions may undermine recent educational improvements in California. Proposed reforms may intensify shortages and require strong incentives to recruit sufficient numbers of qualified teachers.

This article reviews the literature on federal involvement in U.S. elementary and secondary education, from the 1960s to the present day. The federal government's share of spending has decreased since the 1980s, and regulatory pressures have subsided. However, this review identifies trends and themes that have emerged in the literature since the 1980s, encompassing both empirical research and normative commentaries. A literature review primarily focuses on work completed after the early 1980s research syntheses and excludes judicial policies.

Before the 1970s, public school finance issues were mainly related to spending inequalities. However, since then, the focus has shifted towards financing education to improve its quality. This article suggests new research directions for school finance that address this policy interest, including topics related to state education reforms, traditional school finance issues, and education policy issues beyond current reforms.

This article addresses two conflicting trends in U.S. education. On one hand, there is a considerable expansion of statewide controls of education, including new statewide accountability schemes. On the other, there is a resurgence of interest in the professionalization of teaching. These trends are conflicting—at least for the moment­—because state accountability has tended to bureaucratize education and not pay sufficient attention to its impact on the professional dimension of teaching.

California's K-12 education system has experienced funding instability, with revenues per pupil fluctuating and staying constant for years. The education system is attempting a major program of quality improvements while keeping funding constant, a challenge that may be difficult to maintain in the future. The state gives K-12 education a lower priority than most other states when state revenues are tight. The state needs an additional $7.2 billion in the next five years to maintain the current level of real resources per pupil.

The California State Department of Education is creating a multipurpose data system on California education, including the California Basic Educational Data System (CBEDS) which collects information on staff and students. The data is used for reports, planning, and management. Disclosure of certain CBEDS data is restricted and released only to authorized agencies or persons with a bona fide need. The system has inherent problems, with error control being the most pervasive.

This study investigates low participation in the Minimum Teacher Salary provision of SB 813, which had previously been reported by the Legislative Analyst. Only a small percentage of funds were claimed for 1983-84 and 1984-85. Researchers surveyed 48 districts in CA, showing a potential mean beginning salary of over $19K by 1985-86. The concern about underparticipation may be unfounded, as a large percentage of districts will participate, while those that do not have reasons. Large districts participate more than small and medium sized ones, and participation in rural areas is increasing.

States can help local schools improve by implementing effective school improvement strategies. A study by the Education Commission of the States (ECS) identified key elements that can transform schools into more effective organizations, and various roles that states can play in the change process. The study analyzed data collected in 40 schools in 10 states, providing a solid knowledge base for implementing state-mandated education reforms. Effective strategies and conditions for success were studied using a case-study approach. The study began in late 1983 and was completed in early 1985.

California invests heavily in high school vocational education, but it does not effectively prepare students for the labor market. To improve outcomes, vocational education should teach problem-solving and teamwork, integrate with academics, and focus on continual learning. ROC/ROPs should continue to provide job skills training, but prioritize competence over job placement in evaluation.

This report resulted from an opinion survey of California teachers conducted in spring 1985. Surveys were mailed to 1,100 California classroom teachers reflecting a true cross section of all California teachers. More than 70% of those surveyed returned completed questionnaires. This unusually high rate of return, plus the representative nature of the survey sample, make it possible to generalize survey conclusions to California teachers as a whole.

Public school policy mak­ing is embedded in a complex societal matrix. It is not possi­ble to consider the future of U.S. schools without examining the size and distribution of future populations; the future state of the economy and its ef­fect on funds available for the schools; and the political context within which decisions will be made. The public school system is a "dependent variable" of larger social and economic forces.

Several state legislatures have acted on recommendations to improve U.S. public schools, resulting in a swift and broad education reform movement. States have expanded school improvement programs, increased high school graduation and college admission requirements, deepened course offerings, and strengthened the teaching profession. Indicators of progress include longer school attendance, tougher academic courses, better counseling, higher achievement test scores, and increased teacher pay. This swift and broad movement gives reason for optimism about its success.

Rising national demands for better public K-12 education are not resulting in overall increases in education funding, according to an analysis of changes in education funding across all 50 states during the 1980s. While recent funding increases have halted the drop in the real level of resources per pupil that occurred in the early 1980s, only South Carolina and Tennessee have increased real revenues per child by close to 20%. Demands for education improvement exceed the level of fiscal resources needed to make those improvements.

California's waiver authority provides school districts relief from Education Code, allowing them to seek alternatives to state requirements subject to local and state review. Waivers are automatically approved unless denied by the State Board of Education, which rarely happens over local objections. Program waivers are rare despite clamor for needed flexibility, possibly due to districts being unaware of the process, viewing it as time-consuming, or using suboptimal local procedures. Oversight hearings are recommended to explore the potential of the waiver process.

Teacher shortages in certain subjects and geographic areas may undermine educational improvements. Without changes, an annual shortfall of 4,000 to 7,000 teachers is expected over five years, with the greatest shortages in bilingual education and secondary math and science. Strong incentives will be needed to recruit enough qualified teachers.

Increased state funding of public education has led to a call for statewide accountability systems. Current trends rely on standardized true-false testing, which can distort what happens in schools when financial incentives are linked with the tests. Teachers are important, and accountability should provide positive encouragement without excessive use of testing. A set of principles and an outline for a statewide accountability system that relies on both top-down and bottom-up accountability is presented.

This technical report provides an overview of California's educational system, intended for educators, public officials, journalists, and informed citizens. With over four million students and a $17 billion annual cost, the state's school system is vast and complex. The report offers comparisons of California's education system to itself in prior years and other states, revealing patterns of change and suggesting future trends. These trends serve as a guide for the many facts and figures presented in the report.